CHAPTER II.  THE PAPACY AND THE TRIDENTINE COUNCIL.

  The Counter-Reformation--Its Intellectual and Moral  Character--Causes of the Gradual Extinction of Renaissance  Energy--Transition from the Renaissance to the Catholic  Revival--New Religious Spirit in Italy--Attitude of Italians toward  German Reformation--Oratory of Divine Love--Gasparo Contarini and  the Moderate Reformers--New Religious Orders--Paul III.--His early  History and Education--Political Attitude between France and  Spain--Creation of the Duchy of Parma--Imminence of a General  Council--Review of previous Councils--Paul's Uneasiness--Opens a  Council at Trent in 1542--Protestants virtually excluded, and  Catholic Dogmas confirmed in the first Sessions--Death of Paul in  1549--Julius III.--Paul IV.--Character and Ruling Passions of G.P.  Caraffa--His Futile Opposition to Spain--Tyranny of his  Nephews--Their Downfall--Paul Devotes himself to Church Reform and  the Inquisition--Pius IV.--His Minister Morone--Diplomatic Temper  of this Pope--His Management of the Council--Assistance rendered by  his nephew Carlo Borromeo--Alarming State of Northern Europe--The  Council reopened at Trent in 1562--Subsequent History of the  Council--It closes with a complete Papal Triumph in 1563--Place of  Pius IV. in History--Pius V.--The Inquisitor Pope--Population of  Rome--Social Corruption--Sale of Offices and Justice--Tridentine  Reforms depress Wealth--Ascetic Purity of Manners becomes  fashionable--- Piety--The Catholic Reaction generates the  Counter-Reformation--Battle of Lepanto--Gregory XIII.--His  Relatives--Policy of Enriching the Church at Expense of the  Barons--Brigandage in States of the Church--Sixtus V.--His Stern  Justice--Rigid Economy--Great Public Works--Taxation--The City of  Rome assumes its present form--Nepotism in the Counter-Reformation  Period--Various Estimates of the Wealth accumulated by Papal  Nephews--Rise of Princely Roman Families.

 It is not easy to define the intellectual and moral changes which passed over Italy in the period of the Counter-Reformation[7]; it is still less easy to refer those changes to distinct causes. Yet some analysis tending toward such definition is demanded from a writer who has undertaken to treat of Italian culture and manners between the years 1530 and 1600.

In the last chapter I attempted to describe the depth of servitude to which the States of Italy were severally reduced at the end of the wars between France and Spain. The desolation of the country, the loss of national independence, and the dominance of an alien race, can be counted among the most important of those influences which produced the changes in question. Whatever opinions we may hold regarding the connection between political autonomy and mental vigor in a people, it can hardly be disputed that a sudden and universal extinction of liberty must be injurious to arts and studies that have grown up under free institutions.

But there were other causes at work. Among these a prominent place should be given to an alteration in the intellectual interests of the Italians themselves. The original impulses of the Renaissance, in scholarship, painting, sculpture, architecture, and vernacular poetry, had been exhausted.

[Footnote 7: I may here state that I intend to use this term Counter