| Contents | 6 |
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| 1 Introduction ?????????????? | 8 |
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| 1.1 Plant Species and Their Identification | 8 |
| 1.2 The Delimitation of Species by Descriptions | 12 |
| 1.3 Using Leaves to Diagnose Species | 13 |
| 1.4 Computational Botany | 15 |
| 1.5 Aims and Objectives | 16 |
| 2 Morphometrics: A Brief Review ?????????????? | 17 |
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| 2.1 Historical Background to Morphometrics | 18 |
| 2.1.1 Phase 1: Classical Taxonomy, Evolutionary Theory and Biometry: The Background for Morphometrics | 18 |
| 2.1.2 Phase 2: Genetics and Statistical Methods in Evolution, Agronomy and Biosystematics | 20 |
| 2.1.3 Phase 3: Multivariate Statistics and Morphometrics | 21 |
| 2.1.4 Phase 4: Geometric Morphometrics | 23 |
| 2.2 Morphometric Analysis of Leaves | 25 |
| 2.2.1 Analysis of Conventional Botanical Descriptors | 26 |
| 2.2.2 Analysis of Leaf Outline Shape | 27 |
| 2.2.3 Analysis of Leaf Margin Patterns | 29 |
| 2.2.4 Analysis of Homologous Landmarks and Semi-landmark Configurations | 29 |
| 2.2.5 Fractal Dimensions and Polygon Fitting | 30 |
| 2.2.6 Analysis of Leaf Venation Patterns | 30 |
| 2.2.7 Analysis of Leaf Texture | 31 |
| 2.2.8 Analysis of Other Features of the Leaf Blade | 31 |
| 2.3 Morphometrics of Flowers and Other Plant Organs | 31 |
| 2.4 Applications | 33 |
| 2.4.1 General-Purpose Species Identification | 33 |
| 2.4.2 Agriculture | 35 |
| 2.4.3 Intraspecific Variation, Geographical Distribution, Climate, Phylogeny | 36 |
| 2.5 Summary | 37 |
| 3 Feature Extraction ?????????????? | 39 |
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| 3.1 Leaf Shape | 39 |
| 3.1.1 Study of Existing Techniques for Leaf Shape Analysis | 40 |
| 3.1.2 Evaluation and Results | 43 |
| 3.2 Leaf Texture | 44 |
| 3.2.1 Macro-texture | 45 |
| 3.2.2 Micro-texture | 46 |
| 3.3 Margin Characteristics | 50 |
| 3.3.1 Extracting the Margin | 51 |
| 3.4 Locating the Apex and Insertion Point | 53 |
| 3.4.1 Dynamic Time Warping | 53 |
| 3.4.2 Finding the Points of Margin Symmetry | 55 |
| 3.5 Venation Patterns | 55 |
| 3.5.1 Extraction by Evolved Vein Classifiers | 56 |
| 3.5.2 Extraction by Ant Colonies | 59 |
| 3.5.3 Results and Comparison of Methods | 61 |
| 3.6 Summary | 62 |
| 4 Machine Learning for Plant Leaf Analysis ?????????????? | 63 |
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| 4.1 Incorporating Intra-species Variation into Plant Classification | 63 |
| 4.1.1 Utilizing the Hungarian Algorithm for Improved Classification of Leaf Blades | 64 |
| 4.1.2 Comparing Leaf Margins Using Dynamic Time Warping | 74 |
| 4.2 Combining Different Leaf Features | 75 |
| 4.2.1 Probabilistic Classification from K-Nearest-Neighbour | 76 |
| 4.2.2 Automatic Feature Selection | 79 |
| 4.3 Summary | 84 |
| 5 Botanists' Vision ?????????????? | 86 |
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| 5.1 Comparing the Eye Movements of Botanists and Non-Botanists | 87 |
| 5.1.1 Results and Analysis | 88 |
| 5.2 Reverse Engineering of Expert Visual Observations | 91 |
| 5.2.1 Related Work | 92 |
| 5.2.2 Methodology | 93 |
| 5.2.3 Evaluation | 97 |
| 5.2.4 Summary | 100 |
| References ?????????????? | 101 |
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| Index | 114 |
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