| Acknowledgements | 7 |
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| Table of contents | 9 |
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| List of maps | 17 |
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| List of tables | 17 |
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| List of figures | 19 |
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| Conventions | 21 |
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| List of abbreviations | 23 |
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| 1 Introduction | 25 |
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| 1.1 The Name Cham | 28 |
| 1.2 Convergence Under Contact | 29 |
| 2 The people and the setting | 31 |
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| 2.1 The Location, Population, and Mosques | 31 |
| 2.2 Customs and Religion | 36 |
| 2.2.1 Family names | 36 |
| 2.2.2 Religious practices | 36 |
| 2.3 Interaction with other groups | 38 |
| 2.4 Economic comments | 39 |
| 2.5 Trading | 41 |
| 2.6 Education | 42 |
| 3 Legends and History | 43 |
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| 3.1 Legends | 43 |
| 3.2 The Japanese | 44 |
| 3.3 History of Champa | 45 |
| 3.3.1 The older wave of immigrants | 46 |
| 3.3.2 The second wave of immigrants | 47 |
| 4 The linguistic setting | 49 |
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| 4.1 The Linguistic History | 49 |
| 4.2 The Language use survey | 51 |
| 4.3 The Hainanese Dialect | 52 |
| 4.4 The Mai Dialect | 53 |
| 4.5 Mandarin and Southwest Mandarin | 53 |
| 4.5.1 Sanya Mandarin | 53 |
| 4.6 Sorting out the Chinese loan sources | 54 |
| 4.7 The Li Language | 55 |
| 4.8 Other linguistic influences | 55 |
| 4.9 An aside on Arabic | 56 |
| 4.10 Stübel’s notes | 56 |
| 4.11 Zheng and Ouyang’s work on the language | 57 |
| 4.12 Other investigators | 58 |
| 5 The Hainan Cham sound system | 60 |
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| 5.1 Word structure | 60 |
| 5.2 Syllable structure | 60 |
| 5.3 Consonants | 61 |
| 5.4 Vowels | 62 |
| 5.4.1 Diphthongs | 63 |
| 5.4.2 Triphthongs | 63 |
| 5.5 Tones | 63 |
| 5.6 The origins of tones: tonogenesis | 65 |
| 5.7 The origins of secondary final glottal stops | 67 |
| 5.7.1 Preploded final nasals | 68 |
| 5.7.2 The PC *-l and *-r finals | 69 |
| 5.7.3 PC *-ay and *-aw | 69 |
| 5.7.3 PC *-ay and *-aw | 69 |
| 70 | 69 |
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| 5.7.4 Loans with final glottal stops | 70 |
| 6 Acoustic analyses | 72 |
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| 6.1 Consonants | 72 |
| 6.1.1 Voice onset time | 72 |
| 6.1.2 Lenition of voiceless stops | 75 |
| 6.1.3 Realization of implosives | 77 |
| 6.2 Vowels | 78 |
| 6.2.1 Vowels before a glottal stop | 81 |
| 6.2.2 /a:/ and /a/ before a glottal stop | 83 |
| 6.2.3 /a:/ and /a/ in syllables with a nasal coda | 84 |
| 6.3 Diphthongs and triphthongs | 91 |
| 6.3.1 Rising diphthongs [i.u], [i..], | 91 |
| 92 | 91 |
| 6.3.2 Falling diphthongs [ui.], [oi.],and [ai.] | 91 |
| 95 | 91 |
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| 6.3.3 Diphthongs [ua] and [au] | 97 |
| 6.3.4 Long diphthongs | 99 |
| 6.3.5 Triphthongs | 104 |
| 6.4 Tones | 104 |
| 6.4.1 The ‘level’ tones | 105 |
| 6.4.2 Tone 55 | 109 |
| 6.4.3 The contour tones | 111 |
| 6.5 Phonation | 115 |
| 6.5.1 Falsetto | 116 |
| 6.5.2 Creaky voice | 117 |
| 6.5.3 Creakiness and diphthongs | 118 |
| 7 Word classes | 124 |
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| 7.1 Open classes | 124 |
| 7.1.1 Nouns | 124 |
| 7.1.1.1 Genitive constructions | 124 |
| 7.1.1.2 N + N compounds [N [N]] | 128 |
| 7.1.1.3 The sa³³ patterns | 129 |
| 7.1.1.4 sa³³ in nominalizations [X sa³³] | 130 |
| 7.1.1.5 The X sa³³ NP pattern: [modifier sa³³ Nh] | 132 |
| 7.1.1.5.1 [noun + sa³³] + classifier phrase | 132 |
| 7.1.1.5.2 [demonstrative + sa³³] + classifier phrase + Nh | 132 |
| 7.1.1.5.3 [pronoun + sa³³] + Nh | 133 |
| 7.1.1.5.4 [clause + sa³³] + Nh | 133 |
| 7.1.1.5.5 Word order change | 134 |
| 7.1.1.6 Group marking devices and plurality | 136 |
| 7.1.1.7 Juxtaposed collocations | 137 |
| 7.1.1.8 Natural gender | 138 |
| 7.1.2 Verbs and verbal constructions | 139 |
| 7.1.2.1 The same verb with multiple objects | 139 |
| 7.1.2.2 Chronologically ordered strings | 140 |
| 7.1.2.3 Serial verbs | 141 |
| 7.1.2.4 Benefactives and permissives | 142 |
| 7.1.2.5 Directionals | 143 |
| 7.1.2.5.1 Multiple directionals | 147 |
| 7.1.2.5.2 V directional + V construction | 148 |
| 7.1.2.6 Causatives | 149 |
| 7.1.2.7 Resultatives (Cause-effect SVCs) | 150 |
| 7.1.2.8 The polysemous hu³³ | 151 |
| 7.1.3 Adverbs and adverbials | 154 |
| 7.1.3.1 Adverbs of time | 155 |
| 7.1.3.2 Adverbs of place | 156 |
| 7.1.3.3 Adverbs of manner | 156 |
| 7.1.3.4 Adverbs of frequency | 158 |
| 7.1.3.5 Adverbial placement | 158 |
| 7.1.3.6 Degree adverbials | 160 |
| 7.1.3.7 Adverbial classifiers | 163 |
| 7.1.4 Measurements of time | 165 |
| 7.1.4.1 Hours |
