| 1 Introduction | 11 |
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| 1.1 The Standard Notions and Their Problems | 11 |
| 1.2 Aim of the Book | 17 |
| 1.3 Plan of the book | 18 |
| 2 Against the Standard Notions of Literal Meaning and Non-literal Meaning | 21 |
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| 2.1 Literal Meaning and Context-Independence | 21 |
| 2.1.1 Literal Meaning as Compositional Meaning? | 22 |
| 2.1.2 Literal Meaning as Context-Independent? | 27 |
| 2.1.3 Literal Meaning as Primary to Non-literal Meaning? | 33 |
| 2.2 Non-literal Meaning and Conventionality | 38 |
| 2.2.1 Empirical Evidence | 38 |
| 2.2.2 Theoretical Considerations | 44 |
| 2.3 Consequences for Lexical Meaning | 52 |
| 2.3.1 Problematic Data | 53 |
| 2.3.2 Approaches to Meaning in the Lexicon | 59 |
| 2.3.2.1 The Maximalist Approach | 60 |
| 2.3.2.2 The Intermediate Approach | 64 |
| 2.3.3 Semantic Underspecification in the Lexicon | 71 |
| 2.3.3.1 The Minimalist Approach | 71 |
| 2.3.3.2 Ruhl’s monosemic approach | 76 |
| 2.3.3.3 A Cognitive Approach | 77 |
| 2.3.3.4 Underspecification and Conventionality | 82 |
| 2.3.3.5 Underspecification and Semantic Relations | 84 |
| 2.3.3.6 More Underspecification in the Lexicon | 85 |
| 2.3.3.7 Underspecification of Semantic Composition | 88 |
| 2.4 Empirical Investigations of Aspects of Semantics | 90 |
| 2.4.1 Polysemy vs. Underspecification in the Lexicon | 90 |
| 2.4.2 Empirical Evidence for Semantic vs. Pragmatic Processing | 96 |
| 2.5 Why the Standard Notions? | 101 |
| 2.6 Summary | 105 |
| 3 Utterance Meaning and the Literal/Non-literal Distinction | 109 |
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| 3.1 Levels of Meaning | 110 |
| 3.1.1 Grice’s Four Types of Meaning | 110 |
| 3.1.2 Bierwisch’s Three Levels of Meaning | 115 |
| 3.1.3 Summary | 120 |
| 3.2 The Problem of Characterising the Level of Utterance Meaning | 122 |
| 3.2.1 Explicit/Implicit Meaning | 124 |
| 3.2.1.1 Explicatures | 124 |
| 3.2.1.2 Implicitures | 133 |
| 3.2.2 Unarticulated Constituents vs. Hidden Indexicals | 137 |
| 3.2.3 Minimal Semantic Content and Full Propositionality | 148 |
| 3.2.4 Minimal Proposition vs. Proposition Expressed | 157 |
| 3.3 Summary | 164 |
| 4 Utterance Meaning and Communicative Sense – Two Levels or One? | 169 |
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| 4.1 Problematic Phenomena | 171 |
| 4.1.1 Metaphor | 171 |
| 4.1.1.1 Traditional Characterisation and its Problems | 171 |
| 4.1.1.2 Metaphor and The Similarity of Various Types of Meaning | 173 |
| 4.1.1.3 Metaphor and Attributive Categories | 176 |
| 4.1.1.4 Empirical Results Concerning Metaphor Interpretation | 178 |
| 4.1.1.5 Formal approaches to metaphor interpretation | 182 |
| 4.1.1.6 Summary | 189 |
| 4.1.2 Irony | 191 |
| 4.1.2.1 Traditional Characterisation and its Problems | 191 |
| 4.1.2.2 Irony as echoic interpretive use | 192 |
| 4.1.2.3 Irony as a Form of Indirect Negation | 195 |
| 4.1.2.4 Empirical Results Concerning Irony Interpretation | 198 |
| 4.1.2.5 Summary | 205 |
| 4.1.3 Conversational Implicatures | 206 |
| 4.1.3.1 Generalised vs. Particularised Conversational Implicature – Theoretical Approaches | 206 |
| 4.1.3.2 (Mostly) Empirical Evidence Concerning GCIs | 217 |
| 4.1.3.3 Summary | 226 |
| 4.1.4 Speech Acts | 227 |
| 4.2 Differentiating What is Said from What is Meant | 232 |
| 4.2.1 What is Said/What is Meant and Indirect Speech Reports | 234 |
| 4.2.2 Primary vs. Secondary Pragmatic Processes | 239 |
| 4.2.3 What is Said/What is Meant and Distinct Knowledge Systems | 244 |
| 4.3 Summary | 252 |
| 5 Varieties of Meaning, Context and the Semantics/Pragmatics Distinction | 256 |
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| 5.1 Towards an Alternative Characterisation of (Non-)Literal Meaning | 256 |
| 5.1.1 Literal Meaning and Types of Non-literal Meaning | 258 |
| 5.1.2 Literal Meaning as ‘Minimal Meaning’ | 265 |
| 5.1.3 Nature of the Processes Determining (Non)-Literal Meaning | 271 |
| 5.1.4 (Non-)Literal Meaning as (Non-)Basic Meaning | 278 |
| 5.2 The Nature of Context in Utterance Interpretation | 285 |
| 5.2.1 Context and the Interpretation of Implicit Meaning Aspects | 286 |
| 5.2.1.1 Free Enrichment and Implicit Meaning Aspects | 286 |
| 5.2.1.2 Discourse Interpretation and Information from Conceptual Frames | 290 |
| 5.2.1.3 Free Enrichment and Information from Conceptual Frames | 294 |
| 5.2.1.4 Consequences | 302 |
| 5.2.2 Context, Semantic Interpretation and the Semantics/ Pragmatics Distinction | 303 |
| 5.3 Summary | 314 |
| 6 Summary | 317 |
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| List of Figures | 321 |
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| Bibliography | 323 |
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| Index | 335 |
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