| Acknowledgments | 7 |
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| 1 Introduction: The heritage language learner? | 15 |
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| 1.1 The heritage language learner? | 15 |
| 1.2 Research on heritage language learners | 17 |
| 1.3 Weekend Japanese language schools in the United States | 19 |
| 1.4 Kokugo vs. keisho | 19 |
| 20 | 19 |
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| 1.5 Analyzing performative construction of the heritage language learner | 23 |
| 1.6 Construction of the heritage language learner | 25 |
| 1.6.1 Constructing the heritage language learner as an object of investigation | 25 |
| 1.6.2 Constructing heritage language learners through schooling: Two imaginings, two modes of governmentality | 26 |
| 1.6.3 Constructing heritage language learners by giving them meanings | 28 |
| 1.7 On collaboration | 29 |
| 1.8 The structure of the book | 31 |
| 2 An emerging field of investigation: Construction of the heritage language learner as a new object of study | 33 |
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| 2.1 A new term on the block | 33 |
| 2.2 Shifts in language policies in the United States | 34 |
| 2.3 Emergence of the term “heritage language” in the United States | 36 |
| 2.3.1 Self-esteem-based definition of the heritage language learner | 37 |
| 2.3.2 Linguistic-proficiency-based definition of the heritage language learner | 39 |
| 2.3.3 Interconnection, disjuncture, and critique | 40 |
| 2.4 Contested fields of research: Defining the heritage language learner | 42 |
| 2.5 Knowledge and power | 42 |
| 2.6 Reification of language, linguistic community, and language speakers: The heritage language effect | 43 |
| 2.6.1 Reifying language and linguistic community | 43 |
| 2.6.1.1 Language and nation-states | 44 |
| 2.6.1.2 Standardization | 47 |
| 2.6.1.3 Linguistics | 50 |
| 2.6.2 Reifying the language speaker | 52 |
| 2.6.2.1 The native speaker concept | 53 |
| 2.6.2.2 Alternative notions: English as a lingua franca | 55 |
| 2.6.2.3 Alternative labels | 56 |
| 2.6.2.4 Contestations | 57 |
| 2.7 Construction of the heritage language through research | 57 |
| 3 Ethnographic fieldwork at Jackson Japanese Language School | 59 |
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| 3.1 Jackson Japanese Language School | 59 |
| 3.2 The Jackson Course | 62 |
| 3.3 JJLS, heritage language research, and keishogo vs. heritage language | 62 |
| 66 | 62 |
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| 3.4 Ethnographic fieldwork at JJLS and subjectivities of the authors | 71 |
| 3.5 Collecting data | 73 |
| 4 Betwixt and between Japanese and the heritage language learner of Japanese | 77 |
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| 4.1 Transplanted virtual “Japan”, or Japanese school for the local community? | 77 |
| 4.2 Japanese government policies on hoshuko | 77 |
| 79 | 77 |
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| 4.3 Adapting to a changing student body at the local level | 82 |
| 4.4 The road JJLS took | 84 |
| 4.4.1 Mr. and Mrs. Ikeda: Founding members and local administrators | 84 |
| 4.4.2 Lee: Principal of the second unit, 2004-2012 | 88 |
| 4.4.3 MEXT-sent principals | 90 |
| 4.5 Construction of “Japanese” students and “heritage language learners of Japanese” | 92 |
| 5 Designing the heritage language learner: Modes of governmentality in the classroom | 95 |
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| 5.1 Intended modes of governmentality in hoshuko-bu and the Jackson Course | 95 |
| 95 | 95 |
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| 5.2 Visibility and technique | 95 |
| 5.2.1 Learning about Takamura Kotaro in hoshuko-bu: The subject-centered approach | 100 |
| 5.2.2 Learning about John Manjiro | 100 |
| 102 | 100 |
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| 5.3 Knowledge | 104 |
| 5.4 Subjectivities | 105 |
| 5.4.1 On supporting Japan’s future | 105 |
| 5.4.2 A hoshuko-bu teacher’s view | 106 |
| 5.4.3 On the voting age | 107 |
| 5.4.4 On abortion in Korea and other countries | 108 |
| 5.4.5 A Jackson Course teacher’s view | 109 |
| 5.5 Molding heritage language learners | 110 |
| 6 Defining the heritage language learner | 112 |
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| 6.1 Practices and perc
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