| Acknowledgements | 7 |
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| Conventions | 13 |
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| Tables | 15 |
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| Figures | 19 |
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| 1 Introduction and overview | 25 |
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| 2 Entrenchment in usage-based theories | 28 |
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| 2.1 Entrenchment in usage-based constructionist approaches | 30 |
| 2.2 Entrenchment and usage-based assumptions about language representation and processing | 34 |
| 2.3 Entrenchment in usage-based theories of language acquisition | 37 |
| 2.4 Entrenchment in emergentist theories of language phylogeny | 39 |
| 2.5 Entrenchment in usage-based theories of language change | 41 |
| 2.6 Entrenchment in related frameworks | 44 |
| 2.7 Summary and outlook: The epistemological status of entrenchment in usage-based frameworks | 47 |
| 3 The cognitive realism of usage-based generalizations, with a special focus on the relationship between token frequencies and entrenchment | 51 |
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| 3.1 The assumed link between collective usage and individual representation | 52 |
| 3.2 Against the psychological realism of corpus-derived claims | 57 |
| 3.3 In support of the potential psychological realism of corpus-derived claims | 68 |
| 3.3.1 Neuroplasticity | 68 |
| 3.3.2 Experimental research on token frequency effects in multi-word sequences | 71 |
| 3.3.3 Psycholinguistic research on the entrenchment of multiword sequences | 74 |
| 3.3.4 Patholinguistic data showing selective dissociations between holistic versus novel sequences of morphemes | 76 |
| 3.3.5 Neuroimaging studies supporting the idea of a neurocognitive split between holistic and compositional modules | 81 |
| 3.4 Conclusion: Can we reasonably expect corpora to predict entrenchment in the mind? | 85 |
| 4 Operationalizing entrenchment | 90 |
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| 4.1 Defining entrenchment | 91 |
| 4.2 Assessing the psychological realism of a statement in experimental terms | 93 |
| 4.3 Sources of inspiration | 96 |
| 4.3.1 Gestalt psychology | 97 |
| 4.3.1.1 Why seek inspiration from non-linguistic lines of research? | 97 |
| 4.3.1.2 What makes a chunk in Gestalt psychology? | 100 |
| 4.3.2 The masked priming paradigm | 109 |
| 4.3.3 Frequency effects in English derivatives | 117 |
| 4.3.4 Parametric studies on word frequency effects | 125 |
| 4.4 Operationalizing Entrenchment | 128 |
| 5 Experimental design | 133 |
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| 5.1 Stimuli | 133 |
| 5.1.1 Stimuli for the masked priming fMRI study | 133 |
| 5.1.1.1 Stimuli for the main conditions | 133 |
| 5.1.1.2 Stimuli for the ‘no ’ -conditions | 140 |
| 5.1.1.3 Stimuli for the control conditions | 141 |
| 5.1.2 Stimuli for the memory experiment | 142 |
| 5.2 Experimental procedures | 143 |
| 5.2.1 Experimental procedure for the masked priming fMRI studies | 143 |
| 5.2.2 Experimental procedure for the memory task | 147 |
| 6 Behavioural data analysis | 148 |
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| 6.1 Main conditions | 148 |
| 6.1.1 General method | 148 |
| 6.1.2 Simple linear mixed-effects regression analyses | 148 |
| 6.1.3 Multiple mixed-effects regression analyses | 156 |
| 6.1.3.1 Introductory remarks on methodology | 156 |
| 6.1.3.2 Multiple regression results for part-to-whole priming | 157 |
| 6.1.3.3 Multiple regression results for whole-to-part priming | 158 |
| 6.2 Behavioural analyses for the supplementary experiments | 162 |
| 6.2.1 Mixed-effects regression analyses for jumbled target priming | 162 |
| 6.2.2 Behavioural analyses for the comparison with monomorphemic controls | 167 |
| 6.2.3 Behavioural analyses for the memory task | 168 |
| 6.3 Conclusions | 171 |
| 7 Neuroimaging Data Analysis | 182 |
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| 7.1 Introductory remarks | 182 |
| 7.2 Statistical Parametric Imaging analysis | 183 |
| 7.2.1 Imaging Parameters | 183 |
| 7.2.2 fMRI data analysis | 184 |
| 7.2.3 Preprocessing | 184 |
| 7.2.4 First-level analysis | 184 |
| 7.3 Results | 185 |
| 7.3.1 Second-level analyses | 185 |
| 7.3.2 Results for the part-to-whole priming task | 185 |
| 7.3.3 Results for the whole-to-part priming task | 193 |
| 7.3.4 Results for the jumbled target priming task | 198 |
| 7.3.5 Conjunction analysis for the main conditions | 198 |
| 7.4 Conclusion | 203 |
| 8 Summary and conclusion | 210 |
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| 8.1 Summary: Entrenchment in usage-based theories | 210 |
| 8.1.1 Research rationale and questions | 210 |
| 8.1.2 Operationalizing entrenchment | 213 |
| 8.1.3 Behavioural results | 215 |
| 8.1.4 fMRI Results | 218 |
| 8.2 Some further theoretical implications | 222 |
| 8.3 The corpus-to-cognition principle: Towards more fine-grained correlations between corpus and cognitive data | 229 |
| 8.4 Outlook | 235 |
| References | 239 |
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| Appendix | 279 |
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| Index | 302 |
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