| Table of contents | 6 |
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| Preface | 12 |
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| 1 Preliminary remarks about syntactic analysis | 14 |
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| 1.1 Syntax and lexis | 14 |
| 1.2 Sentence and clause | 16 |
| 1.3 Clause constituents | 17 |
| 1.3.1 Clause constituents at different levels | 17 |
| 1.3.2 Identifying clause constituents | 19 |
| 1.3.3 Relations between constituents | 22 |
| 1.4 The importance of terminology | 25 |
| 1.5 The aims of this book | 27 |
| 2 The syntactic framework | 29 |
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| 2.1 Survey of the framework suggested | 29 |
| 2.2 Elements of clause structure | 31 |
| 2.2.1 Subject | 31 |
| 2.2.2 Adjuncts | 32 |
| 2.2.3 Predicate | 33 |
| 2.3 Valency | 34 |
| 2.3.1 Complements and adjuncts | 34 |
| 2.3.2 Valency complements as constituents in clause structure | 36 |
| 2.4 Phrases and clauses | 37 |
| 2.4.1 Phrases | 37 |
| 2.4.2 The structure of the phrase | 38 |
| 2.4.3 Clauses as verb phrases | 40 |
| 2.5 Coordination and subordination | 40 |
| 2.5.1 Coordination | 40 |
| 2.5.2 Coordinated and subordinate clauses | 41 |
| 2.5.3 Clause and sentence | 42 |
| 3 Word classes | 44 |
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| 3.1 Words – word classes | 44 |
| 3.1.1 Problems of classification | 44 |
| 3.1.1.1 The arbitrariness of word classes | 44 |
| 3.1.1.2 What is a word and what is one word? | 44 |
| 3.1.2 Criteria for word classes | 47 |
| 3.1.3 English word classes | 49 |
| 3.2 Word classes occurring in the verbal head-complex | 50 |
| 3.2.1 Lexical verbs | 50 |
| 3.2.1.1 Criteria for lexical verbs | 50 |
| 3.2.1.2 Verb forms | 52 |
| 3.2.2 Modal verbs and primary verbs | 52 |
| 3.2.2.1 Lexical verbs, modal verbs and primary verbs | 52 |
| 3.2.2.2 Criteria for primary verbs | 53 |
| 3.2.2.3 Modal verbs | 55 |
| 3.2.2.4 Dare, need and ought | 56 |
| 3.2.3 The verbal head-complex | 56 |
| 3.3 Word classes occurring in the head-complex of the noun phrase | 58 |
| 3.3.1 Lexical nouns | 58 |
| 3.3.1.1 Criteria for lexical nouns | 58 |
| 3.3.1.2 Classes of lexical nouns | 59 |
| 3.3.2 Pronouns | 62 |
| 3.3.2.1 Word classes in the head-complex of the noun phrase: an overview | 62 |
| 3.3.2.2 Subclasses of pure pronouns | 63 |
| 3.3.2.3 Personal pronouns | 64 |
| 3.3.2.4 Reflexive pronouns | 65 |
| 3.3.2.5 Reciprocal pronouns | 65 |
| 3.3.2.6 Indefinite pronouns | 66 |
| 3.3.2.7 Temporal pronouns | 66 |
| 3.3.2.8 who and which | 67 |
| 3.3.3 Determiner-pronouns | 67 |
| 3.3.4 Pure determiners | 69 |
| 3.3.5 Lexical nouns, pronouns, determiner-pronouns and pure determiners in the noun phrase | 69 |
| 3.4 Adjectives | 71 |
| 3.5 Adverbs and particles | 72 |
| 3.5.1 Adverbs | 72 |
| 3.5.2 The category particles | 74 |
| 3.5.3 Adverbs and particles versus adverbs, prepositions and subordinating conjunctions | 76 |
| 3.5.3.1 Traditional adverbs, prepositions and subordinating conjunctions | 76 |
| 3.5.3.2 Reasons for the particle category | 77 |
| 3.6 Conjunctions | 81 |
| 3.7 Interjections | 82 |
| 3.8 Limits of classification | 82 |
| 3.8.1 Relative and interrogative words | 82 |
| 3.8.2 Item-specific properties and special uses | 84 |
| 3.8.3 Problems of classification | 85 |
| 3.8.4 One word or several words | 86 |
| 3.8.5 Item-specific knowledge and word classes | 87 |
| 3.9 Survey of differences | 87 |
| 4 Phrases | 89 |
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| 4.1 The character of the phrase | 89 |
| 4.1.1 Syntactic units beyond the word | 89 |
| 4.1.2 Phrase constituents | 90 |
| 4.1.3 Heads and head-complexes | 90 |
| 4.1.4 Complements and modifiers | 91 |
| 4.2 Noun phrase | 91 |
| 4.2.1 Reference | 91 |
| 4.2.2 The head-complex of the noun phrase: pre-heads and heads | 92 |
| 4.2.3 Complements | 94 |
| 4.2.4 Modifiers | 94 |
| 4.2.5 Structure of the noun phrase | 96 |
| 4.2.6 Elliptical noun phrases and special noun phrase construction | 98 |
| 4.2.7 Typical elements of noun phrases | 100 |
| 4.3 Adjective phrases | 100 |
| 4.4 Adverb phrases | 101 |
| 4.5 Particle phrases | 102 |
| 4.5.1 Structure of the particle phrase | 102 |
| 4.5.2 Headed or non-headed particle phrases | 104 |
| 5 Clauses | 106 |
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| 5.1 Constituents of clause structure | 106 |
| 5.2 Functions of clauses | 108 |
| 5.3 Different types of clauses | 110 |
| 5.3.1 Subject – predicate – adjunct | 110 |
| 5.3.2 Finite and non-finite clauses | 111 |
| 5.3.3 Active and passive clauses | 112 |
| 5.3.4 Clauses with subject and without subject | 112 |
| 5.3.5 Word order | 113 |
| 5.3.6 Wh-clauses | 113 |
| 5.3.7 Relative clauses | 114 |
| 5.4 Clause types | 115 |
| 5.4.1 The notion of clause type | 115 |
| 5.4.2 Finite clauses | 116 |
| 5.4.3 Non-finite clauses without subject | 117 |
| 5.4.4 Non-finite clauses with subject | 118 |
| 5.5 Quasi-clauses | 119 |
| 6 Valency | 121 |
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| 6.1 Basic concepts of the valency model | 121 |
| 6.1.1 Valency slots | 121 |
| 6.1.2 Complements and adjuncts | 122 |
| 6.2 Different degrees of optionality | 123 |
| 6.2.1 Obligatory, optional and contextually optional complement slots | 123 |
| 6.2.2 Three levels of necessity | 125 |
| 6.3 Distinguishing between complements and adjuncts | 126 |
| 6.4 Formal realisations of complements | 130 |
| 6.4.1 Formal and functional properties in the characterization
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